Tugas 2, 3 dan 4 Softskil Bahasa Inggris Bisnis 2

Pronoun In linguistics and grammar, a pronoun (Lat: pronomen) is a pro-form that substitutes for a noun (or noun phrase), such as, in English, the words it (substituting for the name of a certain object) and she (substituting for the female name of a person). The replaced noun is called the antecedent of the pronoun. For example, consider the sentence "Lisa gave the coat to Phil." All three nouns in the sentence can be replaced by pronouns: "She gave it to him." If the coat, Lisa, and Phil have been previously mentioned, the listener can deduce what the pronouns she, it and him refer to and therefore understand the meaning of the sentence; however, if the sentence "She gave it to him." is the first presentation of the idea, none of the pronouns have antecedents, and each pronoun is therefore ambiguous. Pronouns without antecedents are also called unprecursed pronouns. English grammar allows pronouns to potentially have multiple candidate antecedents. The process of determining which antecedent was intended is known as anaphore resolution. Types Pronoun Common types of pronouns found in the world's languages are as follows: * Personal pronouns stand in place of the names of people or things: o Subject pronouns are used when the person or thing is the subject of the sentence or clause. English example: I like to eat chips, but she does not. + Second person formal and informal pronouns (T-V distinction). For example, vous and tu in French. There is no distinction in modern English though Elizabethan English marked the distinction with "thou" (singular informal) and "you" (plural or singular formal). + Inclusive and exclusive "we" pronouns indicate whether the audience is included. There is no distinction in English. + Intensive pronouns, also known as emphatic pronouns, re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as the reflexive pronouns; for example: I did it myself (contrast reflexive use, I did it to myself). o Object pronouns are used when the person or thing is the object of the sentence or clause. English example: John likes me but not her. + Direct and indirect object pronouns. English uses the same oblique form for both; for example: Mary loves him (direct object); Mary sent him a letter (indirect object). + Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself. English example: John cut himself. + Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship. English example: They do not like each other. o Prepositional pronouns come after a preposition. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Anna and Maria looked at him. o Disjunctive pronouns are used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts. No distinct forms exist in English; for example: Who does this belong to? Me. o Dummy pronouns are used when grammatical rules require a noun (or pronoun), but none is semantically required. English example: It is raining. o Weak pronouns. * Possessive pronouns are used to indicate possession or ownership. o In a strict sense, the possessive pronouns are only those that act syntactically as nouns. English example: Those clothes are mine. o Often, though, the term "possessive pronoun" is also applied to the so-called possessive adjectives (or possessive determiners). For example, in English: I lost my wallet. They are not strictly speaking pronouns[citation needed] because they do not substitute for a noun or noun phrase, and as such, some grammarians classify these terms in a separate lexical category called determiners (they have a syntactic role close to that of adjectives, always qualifying a noun). * Demonstrative pronouns distinguish the particular objects or people that are referred to from other possible candidates. English example: I'll take these. * Indefinite pronouns refer to general categories of people or things. English example: Anyone can do that. o Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than collectively. English example: To each his own. o Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. English example: Nobody thinks that. * Relative pronouns refer back to people or things previously mentioned. English example: People who smoke should quit now. o Indefinite relative pronouns have some of the properties of both relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. They have a sense of "referring back", but the person or thing to which they refer has not previously been explicitly named. English example: I know what I like. * Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. English example: Who did that? o In many languages (e.g., Czech, English, French, Interlingua, and Russian), the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English: Who is that? (interrogative) to I know who that is. (relative). Pronouns and determiners Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are actually determiners without a noun or a noun phrase. The following chart shows their relationships in English. Pronoun Determiner Personal (1st/2nd) we we Scotsmen Possessive ours our freedom Demonstrative this this gentleman Indefinite some some frogs Interrogative who which option Examples: * "She got her looks from her father. He's a plastic surgeon." (Groucho Marx) * Chalmers: Well, Seymour, it seems we've put together a baseball team and I was wondering, who's on first, eh? Skinner : Not the pronoun, but rather a player with the unlikely name of "Who" is on first. Chalmers : Well that's just great, Seymour. We've been out here six seconds and you've already managed to blow the routine. ("Screaming Yellow Honkers," The Simpsons, 1999) * "We rolled all over the floor, in each other's arms, like two huge helpless children. He was naked and goatish under his robe, and I felt suffocated as he rolled over him. We rolled over me. They rolled over him. We rolled over us." (Vladimir Nabokov, Lolita) * "I used to be with it, but then they changed what 'it' was. Now, what I'm with isn't it, and what's 'it' seems weird and scary to me." (Abe in "Homerpalooza," The Simpsons) * "Why shouldn't things be largely absurd, futile, and transitory? They are so, and we are so, and they and we go very well together." (George Santayana) * "I am he as you are he as you are me and we are all together." (John Lennon and Paul McCartney, "I Am the Walrus") Sumber : wikipedia & grammar Adjective Clause In linguistics, a dependent clause (sometimes called a subordinate clause) is a clause that augments an independent clause with additional information, but which cannot stand alone as a sentence. Dependent clauses modify the independent clause of a sentence or serve as a component of it. Some grammarians use the term subordinate clause as a synonym for dependent clause, but in some grammars subordinate clause refers only to adverbial dependent clauses.There are also different types of dependent clauses like noun clauses, relative (adjectival) clauses, and adverbial clauses. Dependent words In Indo-European languages, a dependent clause usually begins with a dependent word. One kind of dependent word is a subordinating conjunction. Subordinating conjunctions are used to begin dependent clauses known as adverbial clauses, which act like adverbs. In the following examples, the adverbial clauses are bold and the subordinating conjunctions are italicized: * Wherever she goes, she leaves a piece of luggage behind. (The adverbial clause wherever she goes modifies the verb leaves.) * Bob enjoyed the movie more than I did. (The adverbial clause than I did modifies the adverb more.) A subordinating conjunction can also introduce a noun clause: * I know that he likes me. (The noun clause that he likes me serves as the object of the main-clause verb know.) Another type of dependent word is the relative pronoun. Relative pronouns begin dependent clauses known as relative clauses; these are adjective clauses, because they modify nouns. In the following example, the relative clause is bold and the relative pronoun is italicized: * The only one of the seven dwarfs who does not have a beard is Dopey. (The adjective clause who does not have a beard describes the pronoun one.) A relative adverb plays the role of an adverb in a relative clause, as in * That is the reason why I came. (The relative clause why I came describes the noun reason, and within the relative clause the adverb why modifies the verb came.) * That is the place where he lives. (The relative clause where he lives describes the noun place, and within the relative clause the adverb where modifies the verb lives.) An interrogative word can serve as an adverb in a noun clause, as in * No one understands why you need experience. (The noun clause why you need experience functions as the direct object of the main-clause verb "understands", and within the noun clause why serves as an adverb modifying need.) Noun clause A noun clause can be used like a noun. It can be a subject, predicate nominative, direct object, appositive, indirect object, or object of the preposition. Some of the English words that introduce noun clauses are that, whether, who, why, whom, what, how, when, whoever, where, and whomever. Notice that some of these words also introduce adjective and adverbial clauses. A clause is a noun clause if a pronoun (he, she, it, or they) could be substituted for it. Examples: * I know who said that. (I know it.) (The dependent clause serves as the object of the main-clause verb "know".) * Whoever made that assertion is wrong. (He/she is wrong.) (The dependent clause serves as the subject of the main clause.) Sometimes in English a noun clause is used without the introductory word. Example: * I know that he is here. * I know he is here. (without "that") In some cases, use of the introductory word, though grammatically correct, may sound cumbersome in English, and the introductory word may be omitted. Example: * I think that it is pretty. (less common) * I think it is pretty. (more common) Relative (adjectival) clause n Indo-European languages, a relative clause—also called an adjective clause or an adjectival clause—will meet three requirements. First, like all dependent clauses, it will contain a verb (and it will also contain a subject unless it is a non-finite dependent clause). However, in a pro-drop language the subject may be a zero pronoun—that is, the pronoun may not be explicitly included because its identity is conveyed by a verbal inflection. Next, it will begin with a relative adverb [when, where, or why in English] or a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which in English]. However, the English relative pronoun may be omitted and only implied if it plays the role of the object of the verb or object of a preposition in a restrictive clause; for example, He is the boy I saw is equivalent to He is the boy whom I saw, and I saw the boy you are talking about is equivalent to the more formal I saw the boy about whom you are talking. Finally, the relative clause will function as an adjective, answering questions such as "what kind?", "how many?" or "which one?". The adjective clause in English will follow one of these patterns: * Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Object of Verb] + Subject + Verb This is the ball that I was bouncing. * Relative Adverb + Subject + Verb (possibly + Object of Verb) That is the house where I grew up. That is the house where I met her. * Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb (possibly + Object of Verb) That is the person who hiccuped. That is the person who saw me. * Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Object of Preposition] + Subject + Verb (possibly + Object of Verb) + Preposition That is the person who(m) I was talking about. That is the person who(m) I was telling you about. * Preposition + Relative Pronoun [Functioning as Object of Preposition] + Subject + Verb (possibly + Object of Verb) That is the person about whom I was talking. That is the person about whom I was telling you. * Possessive Relative Pronoun + Noun [Functioning as Subject] + Verb (possibly + Object of Verb) That is the dog whose big brown eyes pleaded for another cookie. That is the dog whose big brown eyes begged me for another cookie. * Possessive Relative Pronoun + Noun [Functioning as Object of Verb] + Subject + Verb That is the person whose car I saw. For a discussion of adjective clauses in languages other than English, see Relative clause#Examples. English punctuation The punctuation of an adjective clause depends on whether it is essential or nonessential and use commas accordingly. Essential clauses are not set off with commas, while non-essential clauses are. An adjective clause is essential if the information it contains is necessary to the meaning of the sentence. For example: * The vegetables that people often leave uneaten are usually the most nutritious. Here "vegetables" is nonspecific, so in order to know which ones is being referred to, one must have the information provided in the adjective clause (in italics). Because it restricts the meaning of "vegetable", this adjective clause is called a restrictive clause; it is essential to the meaning of the main clause and uses no commas (and correspondingly, does not experience a pause when spoken). However, if the additional information does not help to identify more narrowly the identity of the noun antecedent but rather simply provides further information about it, then the adjective clause is non-restrictive and does require commas (or a spoken pause) to separate it from the rest of the sentence. For example: * Broccoli, which people often leave uneaten, is very nutritious. Depending on context, a particular noun could be modified by either a restrictive or non-restrictive adjective clause. For example, while "broccoli" is modified non-restrictively in the preceding sentence, it is modified restrictively in the following. * The broccoli which people leave uneaten is often nutritious. Adverbial clause "He saw Mary when he was in New York" and "They studied hard because they had a test" both contain adverbial clauses (in italics). Adverbial clauses express when, why, where, opposition, and conditions, As with all dependent clauses, they cannot stand alone. For example, When he was in New York is not a complete sentence; it needs to be completed by an independent clause. For example: * He went to the Guggenheim Museum when he was in New York. or equivalently * When he was in New York, he went to the Guggenheim Museum. Dependent clauses and sentence structure A sentence with an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a complex sentence. One with two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses is referred to as a compound-complex sentence. Here are some English examples: My sister cried because she scraped her knee. (complex sentence) * Subjects: My sister, she * Predicates: cried, scraped her knee * Subordinating conjunction: because When they told me (that) I won the contest, I cried, but I didn't faint. **(compound-complex sentence) * Subjects: they, I, I, I * Predicates: told me, won the contest, cried, didn't faint * Subordinating conjunctions: when, that (explicit or understood) * Coordinating conjunction: but The above sentence contains two dependent clauses. "When they told me" is one; the other is "(that) I won the contest", which serves as the object of the verb "told." The connecting word "that," if not explicitly included, is understood to implicitly precede "I won" and in either case functions as a subordinating conjunction. This sentence also includes two independent clauses, "I cried" and "I didn't faint," connected by the coordinating conjunction "but." The first dependent clause, together with its object (the second dependent clause), adverbially modifies the verbs of both main clauses. Non-finite dependent clauses Dependent clauses may be headed by an infinitive or other non-finite verb form, which in linguistics is called deranked. In these cases, the subject of the dependent clause may take a non-nominative form. An example is: * I want him to vanish. Sumber : wikipedia